introduction: pseudomonas aeruginosa is a gram-negative bacterium that considered as important opportunistic human pathogen. one of the mechanisms that help bacteria to tolerate survival in adverse conditions and resistance to antibiotics is biofilm formation through quorum sensing (qs) signals and toxin-antitoxin (ta) systems. qs and ta are two systems that have important roles in biofilm form...

conclusions the analysis recommended that ta genes are prevalent in clinical isolates of e. coli strains. the analysis revealed that hipba ta system is associated with biofilm formation. results the results of the analysis revealed that 107 e. coli isolates were potent for biofilm formation by cra. the findings by microtiter plates showed that 102 e. coli isolates were biofilm producers. the re...

Toxin-antitoxin systems are commonly found on plasmids and chromosomes of bacteria and archaea. These systems appear as biscystronic genes encoding a stable toxin and a labile antitoxin, which protects the cells from the toxin's activity. Under specific, mostly stressful conditions, the unstable antitoxin is degraded, the toxin becomes active and growth is arrested. Using genome analysis we ide...

The toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are systems in which an unstable antitoxin inhibits a stable toxin. This review aims to introduce the TA system and its biological application in bacteria. For this purpose, first we introduce a new classification for the TA systems based on how the antitoxin can neutralize the toxin, we then describe the functions of TA systems and finally review the applicatio...

Bacterial toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems, in which a labile antitoxin binds and inhibits the toxin, can promote adaptation and persistence by modulating bacterial growth in response to stress. Some atypical TA systems, known as tripartite toxin-antitoxin-chaperone (TAC) modules, include a molecular chaperone that facilitates folding and protects the antitoxin from degradation. Here we use a TAC m...

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic elements composed of a toxin gene and its cognate antitoxin. The toxins of all known TA systems are proteins while the antitoxins are either proteins or non-coding RNAs. Based on the molecular nature of the antitoxin and its mode of interaction with the toxin the TA modules are currently grouped into five classes. In general, the toxin is more stab...

Summary Bacterial type II toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules encode a toxic protein that downregulates metabolism and specific antitoxin binds inhibits the toxin during normal growth. In non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae, common cause of infections in humans, vapXD locus was found to constitute functional TA module contribute pathogenicity; however, mode action VapD mechanism...

Bacterial toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems typically consist of a small, labile antitoxin that inactivates a specific longer-lived toxin. In Escherichia coli, such antitoxins are proteolytically regulated by the ATP-dependent proteases Lon and ClpP. Under normal conditions, antitoxin synthesis is sufficient to replace this loss from proteolysis, and the bacterium remains protected from the toxin. H...